68000 MACHINE LANGUAGE COURSE PART I by Mark van de Boer
Originally published in ST NEWS Volume 1 Issue 6, launched on
November 15th 1986.
As the title already says this is the first part of an 68000
assembly language programming course. This course is intended for
people who already have a little experience with programming in
assembly language on microprocessors like the 6502 (6510 is in
fact the same) and the 68xx (like 6800, 6801, 6805, 6809) series.
In this course these two microprocessor-families will be
referenced by their most famous members, the 6502 and the 6809. At
this time it is not exactly known how many articles this course
will have. I think it will be about six articles long.
Now I will describe some features of the 68000. The 68000 is a
sixteen-bit microprocessor. This means that an opcode is always
sixteen bits (On the 6502 and 6809 an opcode is 8 bits, therefore
they are called 8-bit microprocessors). The databus of the 68000
is 16 bits wide, this means that 16 bits can be transferred at
once by the 68000 (The 6502 and 6809 both have a databus that is
eight bits wide, so they can transfer 8 bits at once).
Another important feature of the 68000 is its impressive set of
registers. First there are the eight data registers, numbered D0-
D7. They are 32 bits wide and can be used for operations on 8-bit,
16-bit and 32-bit quantities. Data registers can be compared with
the A-register (Accumulator) on the 6502 and 6809, their
function same, but the use of the data registers is much more
convenient. Second, there are the eight address registers,
numbered from A0-A7. They are 32 bits wide as well and their only
use is in addressing memory. However, the upper 8 bits are
ignored by the 68000 since its address bus is 'only' 24 bits
wide, meaning that the 68000 can address up to 16 megabytes of
memory. Register A7 has a special function; it is called the
system stackpointer. This means that if you execute a JSR
instruction, some data will be saved on the address contained in
this register. By the way, you can use every address register
very easily as a stackpointer. The third class consists of one
register, the PC (program counter). This register always contains
the address of the instruction to be executed next. Of course,
the upper eight bits of the PC are also ignored. The fourth class
consists of one 16 bit register, the status register, called SR.
This register is built up like this:
-------------------------------------------------------------
| T | | S | | I0| I1| I2| | | | X | N | Z | V | C |
-------------------------------------------------------------
system-byte | user-byte
The upper 8 bits are called the system byte. This byte contains
information that is important to the system. Normally you can not
change this byte if you run an application. Bit 15 is called the
trace-bit. If this bit is set, every time after executing an
instruction the 68000 will generate an exception (This is called
an interrupt on the 6502 and 6809). This is especially useful when
debugging programs. Bit 13 is called the supervisor bit. When this
bit is set the 68000 is in supervisor mode; when this bit is
cleared, however, the 68000 is in user mode. When executing in
supervisor mode, the 68000 can execute the so called privileged
instructions, which are not available in user mode. For example,
it is illegal trying to change the upper 8 bits of the SR when in
user mode. Bits 8, 9 and 10 are called the interrupt mask. In
total they can contain eight different values ranging from zero to
seven. For instance, if bits 8 and 10 are set and bit 9 is
cleared, the value of the interrupt mask is 5. This means that
only interrupts with a level of 5 and higher are recognized by the
68000 and interrupts with a level lower than 5 are ignored.
Interrupts of level 7 can be considered as non maskable interrupts
(compare this to the NMI on the 6502 and 6809). The lower 8 bits
are called the conditioncode register, CCR (this can be
compared to the CC of the 6502 and 6809). The CCR contains 5 bits,
which contain useful data. Bit 0 is the carry-flag (C), bit 1 is
the overflow-flag (V), bit 2 is the zero-flag (Z), bit 3 is the
negative-flag (N). The meanings of these bits are exactly the
same as on the 6502 and 6809. Then there is bit 4 which is called
the extend-flag (X). It is nearly exactly the same as the carry-
flag, but is not affected by every instruction that affects the
carry-flag. This feature of the extend-flag is especially useful
when using multiple precision arithmetic, e.g. adding 64-bit
numbers.
Another feature of the 68000 is its ability to access three data
formats: byte (8 bits), word (16 bits) and longword (32 bits). You
can indicate this with a suffix in the mnemonic field. The
suffixes are .b for byte, .w for word and .l for longword. E.g.
asr.b d0 , asr.w d0 , asr.l d0. These instructions shift
data register d0 one place to the right.
I think this is enough new stuff for today. Next time I will
explain the addressing modes of the 68000. If you have any
comments or questions on this article, please write to the
correspondence address and I'll take your notes into account.
A good Motorola MC 68000 book is:
The Motorola 68000 programming guide, which unfortunately is not
available in the stores.
Further there are a number of books on the 68000. I would like to
mention the book written by Lance Leventhal & Gerry Kane, which I
think gives good value for its money. Another good book is Steve
Williams' "Programming the 68000".
Disclaimer
The text of the articles is identical to the originals like they appeared
in old ST NEWS issues. Please take into consideration that the author(s)
was (were) a lot younger and less responsible back then. So bad jokes,
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tastelessness should be taken with at least a grain of salt. Any contact
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